Wednesday 24 September, 2008
Tuesday 23 September, 2008
The 'Mukkuvar', a valiant marine fishing people!
The 'Mukkuvar', a valiant marine fishing people!
“Tharaimel pirakkavaitthaan-enkalai
Thanneeril pizhaikkavaitthaan!” [Kannadasan]
We live on a wet planet. Water comprises greater than 70 percent of Earth, and that habitat is home to far more vertebrates than the dry portion of the planet.
There are over 22,000 species of fish, and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization monitors commercial harvest of slightly over 1,100 species.
Hunting and gathering animals that live in water is an ancient form of food gathering.
Fishing—usually by hand, club, spear, net, and possibly by hook—was known to prehistoric people. It was practiced by the ancient Persians, Egyptians, and Chinese, and it is mentioned in the Odyssey and in the Bible. It is a major means of subsistence and livelihood today in most nations of the world.
The Mukkuvar are the valiant among the marine fishing people presently inhabiting the Arabian sea coast in the districts of Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu and Trivandrum in Kerala. They are the only manual shark hunters, besides daring the sea at all seasons, in all regions and are skilled in all kinds of gears and crafts, traditional as well as modern. Their traditional skill in determining the course of the currents, the winds, the time and directions even in adverse situations is legendary.
Etymology:
The very term Mukkuvar indicative of their subaltern state as the word Mukkuvar receive its meaning from etymological Tamil word ‘Muk’. There are two implications according to Kalpana Ram. The first implication indicates region of this community as the corner (muk) in the Indian Peninsula and the second indicate their occupation as diving for fishing (Mung).[1] But most probably this word might have derived from the Sanskrit/Hindi root for fisherman ‘machhuva.’
P.T. Mathew identifies religious cultural and occupational specialties to the term distinguishing the community from other fishing communities in south India especially in Kerala [and the west coast of Tamil Nadu]. Formerly the term ‘Mukkuvar’ was used to mean all marine fishermen. In course of time, it was employed to refer to only one particular subgroup i.e., the Latin catholic marine fishermen. Now “the term Mukkuvar would mean exclusively the community of marine fisher people professing Catholic religion living in the Kanyakumari district [in Tamil Nadu] and Thiruvananthapuram district [in Kerala].” [2] Through a 1961 government order giving them Other Backward Community (OBC) status because of their social and educational backwardness.
This region happens to be one of the richest in the country in terms of biodiversity, abundance of fish stocks, cultural diversity of fishing communities, and historical traditions. The abundance and diversity of fish resources in the inshore sea, arguably one of the richest in the world, is a result of unique geographical and oceanographic features. These shores lie within 20 degrees north of the equator, with relatively warm and stable climatic conditions round the year. Besides, two of the Arabian Sea estuaries, Neyyar and Thamiraparani rivers at Poovar and Erayumanthurai/Thengapattinam, provide fresh water and the right mix of salt and nutrients for all forms of marine life to flourish. Sandy and muddy sub-strata, large coral reefs, rich benthic vegetation and coastal protective plants like mangroves are other important factors that aid biodiversity. The two monsoon cycles, occurring every year, enrich the sea with oxygen and fresh water. Ideal conditions like these that foster marine diversity and high primary productivity have enabled fishing communities to enjoy a stable and prosperous life over generations.
Traditional skills were the mainstay of fishing operations till the late-1960s. These artisans had developed their own skills based on rural technology. They developed various types of craft and gear adapted for various types of fishing operations. For example,’ kattamarams’ -- known as the only unsinkable craft in the world -- were designed as the craft most appropriate for launching and landing on surf beaches. They can be propelled manually or by wind power. The ‘mesh size’ of nets was the main principle behind traditional gear technology. For each species, particular gear with a specific mesh size is designed so that it catches that species alone, and among them only the adult fish, thereby causing minimum damage to the environment and preserving future fish stocks.
The accumulated knowledge system of traditional fishing is substantial and has stood the test of time for thousands of years. Traditional fisher folk refer to the famed ‘shore-seine’ operation as the best example of the superior and sophisticated scientific and technical skills of artisan fisher folk. From the beach, expert fishermen could examine a shoal of fish migrating at a distance of 2-3 km away from the shore. They could judge the type of fish in the shoal, the depth at which the fish were travelling, and their speed. Scholars in the fisheries sector say that traditional fishermen were extremely careful in their operations and did nothing to damage the marine ecosystem.
Fishing gears are largely unchanged from ancient times. Nets of various types are the most commonly used commercial fishing gear. The basic concept of a net, regardless of the configuration, is the same today as it was when ancient man first wove fibers together to make nets. Fishing gears have become more efficient, but in subtle ways. Prior to about 1980, trawls (nets pulled behind a boat) could attain only a limited depth and were nonspecific in their catch. Significant research efforts resulted in trawls that could be fished deeper (up to 8,200 feet, or 2,500 meters) and had devices that would tend to exclude mammals or turtles. The major change that occurred is not in gears, but in the boats/ crafts.
Commercial fishing boats/ crafts are capable of staying at sea for months at a time, giving fishermen the ability to fish anywhere in the sea. Technological advances in engines, fuels, and boat designs, coupled with international treaties that allow foreign fishing fleets safe harbor, increased the efficiency of commercial operations. Harvested animals can be cleaned on board and frozen at –76°F (–60°C) for extended storage. Large companies evolved to more efficiently harvest fish, and those companies developed the concept of multiple fishing boats and a mother ship for processing and storing fish. Fishermen also take advantage of the other forms of commercial transport, taking some of their harvest to nearby ports and consigning them to air freight companies for transport back to home bases.
Restrictions on commercial harvest have been common since the early 1980s. As populations declined, state or federal regulatory agencies restricted harvest by establishing quotas (limited number of fishing licenses), restricting harvest volume (limitation on volume, which can be expressed per day, week, or season), or restricting gears (numbers of traps, length of nets, number of nets).International agreements are in place that define who can fish where, seasons for fishing, and gear acceptance. Most countries claim some distance from their shores as available only to local fishermen.Whole communities are in significant economic crisis. New industries are not readily apparent for a labor force trained in commercial fishing, processing, and distribution of fish and shellfish. Since the 1980s the fisheries have been in sharp decline, and with it a way of life. Some fishermen, with modified gears, are able to switch species. Creative marketing techniques also opened opportunities for commercial fishermen.
The habitation:
The habitat of Mukkuvars is mostly spread of on the western coast and in a few villages on the eastern coast of the Indian peninsula. They lived on beach stretching within one km wide from high- tide level densely from Vizhinjam to south ward to Muttam in former days[3]. They have the habit of migration from November to February each year. In their migration they made suitable settlements in Ponthura, Valiathura, Veli, Anchuthengu, and Mampally in 19th century and in Marianadu in 1960s onwards. A section of Mukkuvar, found settlements aside the known markets all over the original Travancore state.[4] Some settled along with plantation labours at bottom of western ghates places like Puthapandi, Arelvaimozhi, Thittuvilai, Panachamoodu, Kattakada, Vithura, Peringamalai, Palode etc. Their villages can be found along the trade highway in the plains like Palayam, Balaramapuram, Neyyattinkara, Parasala, Kaliakkavilai, Padanthalumoodu, Kuzhithurai, Marthandam,Thiruvithamcode, Karungal, Thingalchanthai, Vadassery,Kottar etc.[5] Though their political unity was divided with the formation of the linguistic states, their religious, cultural, occupational and dialectal affiliation and unit is kept alive as in one community in a political unity [6]
Population:
The number of Mukkuvar was calculated about 10000 in the 16th century by St. Francis Xavier. They lived in 12 villages in the Travancore coast and interior market places. Thereafter any specific reference to the whole community is not available since the community was considered to be some numbers among other converts for Portuguese and among Christians for Church documents. The number of Christian fishermen villages increased from 17 in 1568 to 23 in 1626. Meanwhile mission stations and seven churches were established to serve the religious need of the trade fishers in Kottar, Kalkulam, Parasala,and Neyyattinkara, etc. according to the reports of 1667-1708. The Christian population in this region increased considerably due to natural growth rather than conversions.[7] The state began to take census from 1881 onwards only, the Mukkuvar members were counted among Roman Christians (Latin Catholic). A combination of Roman Catholics and fishermen help to calculate the strength of Mukkuvar from districts belong to the Trivandrum and Padmanabhapuram divisions in the Travancore State. According to the 2005 marine census the Mukkuvar population in both districts counts as 74892 household in population ………..
According to the MCFCI census in 2005, the Mukkuvars predominantly live in the coast of Kannyakumari (members in 37,211 families out of 37,405 households counting 148539 in 44 villages), Tamilnadu and Thiruvananthapuram ,(27681 families out of 34128 counting 143436 in 42 villages ) Kerala. This comes 99 % of fishing communities in KK dist., and 83 % in TVMP dist., are belong to Mukkuvar. The Mukkuvars are densely habituated along the coast from Azhical to Adimalaithura (53 villages) continually in the narrow sand strips, then densely in Vizhinjam and then densely populated stream continues from Poonthura to Valiaveli (9), Santhipuram to Puthukurichi (3) and Puthurai to Mampally(3)[8]. There are more than 100000 mukkuvars live in 175 interior villages in both districts.
In the Latin Archdiocese of Trivandrum:
The Trivandrum Archdiocese is one of the two ecclesiastical provinces in the Latin Rite in Kerala. It was created in June 3, 2004 through the Bull –‘Sacratissimi Cordis Jesu’ – dividing the Ecclesiastical province of Verapoly. The Diocese of Trivandrum was made on July 1, 1937, by Pope Pius XI through the Bull “In Ora Malabarica” from the diocese of Quilon. The care of Diocese of Trivandrum was entrusted to the Carmelites of the Flanders Province (Belgium) then. In the beginning of the diocese the coastal strip from Erayumanthurai to Perumathura was part of the Cochin Padrovada diocese. These coastal villages were known as the Trivandrum Portuguese Mission. This part was annexed to the Diocese of Trivandrum in 1952 temporarily and in 1955 permanently, with an auxiliary native bishop: Bp Peter Bernard Pereira before formation of Kerala State.
“The Latin Archdiocese of Trivandrum has the territory consisting of Trivandrum and Chirayankil of Thiruvananthapuram district with a small strip of coastal belt from Kovalam to Pozhiyoor in Neyyattinkara Taluk and Neerody to Erayumanthurai of Kanyakumari District in Tamil Nadu.”[9] The small strip of coastal belt as the Trivandrum Portuguese Mission had become, ever just after 12 years of their embrace of Christianity under jurisdiction of the Cochin Diocese 1557-1952. Since then the Mukkuvar community annexed in the Trivandrum diocese, the Mukkuvar community was predominant in the diocese counting about 65% and 88% after the bifurcation of Neyyattinkara diocese in the faithful population. “The total number of Catholics in Trivandrum Archdiocese is 2, 31,244, out of which 1, 18,309 are male members and 112,935 are female members.”[10] According to the present (2005) survey there are 45,777 families. The dominating caste in Trivandrum Archdiocese is Mukkuvar. That is about 39,125 families (86% of the total families).[11] They live mainly in well established 43 coastal parishes and interior Mukkuvar settlements.
The community has kept its identity in a hidden way since they are incorporated into the fisher people in the civil consideration and in the Latin Catholic community in the religious. They live in two states, in the Kanyakumary district in Tamil Nadu and Thiruvananthapuram district in Kerala and in two dioceses, in Kottar in Tamil Nadu and Trivandrum in Kerala. The community is not yet well aware of the impact of this division. It has very badly affected its reorganization and appreciation of their contribution in the marine fishing achievements. Most of their catch is brought ashore in Kerala and is counted as the achievement of the Kerala fishermen. Thus the community is denied packing and support from governments of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Mukkuvar in the interior:
Those who involved in fish selling were to run between shores and market places in old days. They found that it was convenient to settle down near the market places to ensure ‘anthicantha’ evening market for fishes. Most of agrarian people prefer to bring their products in the evening market after daily work in the field. Around fish-selling, other merchants also gathered for trade, thus the fish-trade initiated the formation of market places in the Travancore State. While the fish-traders made their settlements near these markets. There are wide spread of such settlements found in old Travancore state but presently in Kanyakumary dist., Tamil Nadu and Thiruvananthapuram dist., in Kerala. They are called as ‘ karamukkuvar or Kuttakar’. Some of dominant places to point are Balaramapuram, Neyyattinkara, Parasala, Kunnukuzhi at Palayam,TVM, Kuzhithura, Puthukadai, Kottar, etc. They are Latin Catholics and built their churches to pioneer the mission work in the interior region of the state. They have marriage relation with mukkuvar shore villages and all cultural factors are the same as of the mukkuvar community. At present they count about 65000. They come under Kottar, Neyyattinkara, and Trivandrum dioceses.
Language: They speak a kind of old Tamil. It seems to be original source of the modern Tamil and Malayalam. It is very rich with similes, stories, poems, metaphoric contents with flavours of all expression of feelings. It has many seemingly Malayalam words with Tamil grammatical structures. It is another dialect with Malayalam overtones. Inhabiting the border districts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, they can easily handle both the languages of Tamil and Malayalam. The medium of language in especially in Vilavancode Taluk was Malayalam till the state reorganization in the early sixties. Also Church services by the priests were conducted in Malayalam in the eight villages in Tamil Nadu of Trivandrum diocese. Moreover, they migrate mostly to Kerala and further west for fishing and hence compelled to master the use of the languages of those regions. Old Tamil and ancient Malayalam literatures were composed of these words mainly used by Mukkuvar. Some of poets of the ‘Sangam’ era and later ages were claimed to be from this community. This can be proved only by further studies. There were poets from this community. Since writing and reading are not considered as needful in life of agrarian in the past, Mukkuvar also did not seriously think of community’s education in the past but they have improved a lot now in education compared to other fishing communities in India.
Religion and Belief systems:
At present Mukkuvars are Christians of the Latin Catholic rite. They were converted to Christianity by Jesuit missionaries especially by St. Francis Xavier, the Second Apostle of India. Before that they were practicing all known religious traditions from their origin. Their religious practices and belief-systems exhibit traces from those of ‘neithel tinai’, ’Tantric’ and ‘Sakteyam’ religions, ‘Saivism’, ‘Buddhism’, and ‘Jainism’ .They did not give up their basic rituals and practices but made adaptations according to the need of the religion of the time. Their practices and beliefs have endured renewal process of the new religion. P. T. Mathew prefers to call it Mukkuvar Catholicism which has its own features due to its adaptation in practice and belief to the Catholic Christian Faith presented to them.
Historical Context:
The Mukkuvars settlement had been remained within the boundaries of the Travancore state[12] from its origin, growth, fall and triumph in its political history. The Mukkuvar community was undergone changes together with up and downs of the state. The region had been under various dynasties like Ay kings, ‘Venad’ kings and Travancore kings. These dynasties held supremacy over this region due to its importance in the foreign trade and commerce. The ports in the region attracted many foreign trades especially for spices, marine products, and forest products. They functioned as bridge in trade to the east and the west: China, Japan, and Malaysia etc., with Arabia, Africa and Europe. Thus the prominent rulers in the peninsula wished to possess the region. This attraction caused many battles. The Mukkuvar settlements were transferred from defeated ruler to the victor. The frequent warfare robed away wealth, damaged institutions of learning and crippled its development again and again. In this political context, the Mukkuvars had embraced the Christian faith.
In the beginning of 15th-16th centuries the period, the Travancore state was constrained within the present Kanyakumary District.[13] The state established its supremacy in the18th century covering half of present Kerala territory under its sovereignty and maintained as such until the independence of India. The Mukkuvar territory, which is identified as the coastal stretch of Kannyakumary and Trivandrum districts, had always remained within the Travancore state down the centuries.
Faith Formation and Challenges:
The Mukkuvar became Christians in 1544. They were not given proper training in the faith formation they received a little pastoral care due to scarcity of missionaries. They were not promoted to the priesthood by the ecclesial authorities because they considered the Mukkuvar as lower in caste and more emotionally charged. The missionaries of the Jesuits and their diocesan authority in Cochin did not considered them worth of serious consideration. The political situation in the Travancore and Brahmin’s hostility added further turmoil in their religious life. In spite of this entire hostile situation, they kept their faith for last 550 years. It is all because their love to Francis Xavier and his arrangements to impart the faith to them.
The Parish Institution: The Mukkuvars lived in a village with well territorial boundaries. We have no knowledge whether the saint erected any churches or parishes in these coastal villages but there 14 Mukkuvar villages in the coast. It seems the majority of Mukkuvar received baptism from the saint in each village. He created some shrines and appointed catechists, teachers, and ‘melinchy’ in each village. The officials were helped and assisted by ‘Arayans’. This group had to deliberate for the people, legislate and judge and ensure the maintenance of the community code.[14] This group has to gather to settle quarrels and disputes among people make peace between enemies in the villages after the mass on every Sunday. They had right of punishing minor offences; higher offences and punishment were to be referred to, if it were ecclesial to the superior in the coast and if it was civil matter, to Captain(no. 14).
Those who make a pagoda were banished from native villages with approval of the superior. They arrested the culprits and kept in prison until the priest arrives to give punishments. The Saint asked the priests and missionaries to reconcile the quarrelling men in Sundays and women in Saturdays as they gather for catechism. (No. 5)
The Source of Finance:
The revenue came to the parish from collection (fifth to one-half) of the catch, from the sale of shark fins, “the right to which was in ancient times ceded to the church by the Maharaja of Travancore”[15], and sales tax from merchants called ‘mahima’. By this income, the parishes could meet the expense of salary and allowance to the priest and other officials. Left amounts were utilized to undertake construction of church, schools, and other community structures. Those who made arrears were punished with denial of sacraments. The Mukkuvar parishes were self sufficient in financial matters. They never depended on the missionary grants from Portuguese kings. The Saint advised the missionaries not to take any money from these people. [16] Later those priests from Goa and Cochin who served the coastal villages were accused of grabbing lot of money in name of religious tax and services.[17]
The saint advised to keep a part of this amount to distribute among the poor along with alms collected from Sundays, from sick peoples (no. 6) the requests of the poor for help were taken by the same group in Sundays and allot according to the need and capacities.
The Initiation into the Catholic Faith:
There was only Fr Francis Henriques to take care of Christians with help of a lay brother from 1545- 1575. Fr. Valignano had arranged two priests who knew Tamil in the coastal villagers as he felt pity over their desolated condition. They resided at Colecheal, one was assigned to take care of coast people from Colechal to Cape Comorin and other to west to Chowara. There were 17 churches in 1575.[18] There were 26 churches in 1601. In 1626, there were two Jesuit priests to serve ten thousand souls in 23 churches in the coat. [19] In 1644, the priest number increased into five residing in Puiturai, Kolechal, Kadiapattinam, Rajakamangalam and Kottar. There were no sufficient priests to serve all villages under Jesuits mission from 1544- 1644 or under native dioceses for another three century until Kottar diocese was created in 1930 and the Travancore Portuguese Mission was suppressed in 1952 and annexed to the Diocese of Trivandrum.
The Mukkuvar were under Jesuit mission works and under jurisdiction of the Goa diocese until the territory passed to the diocese of Cochin erected in 1557. For few y Francis Xavier was Popes delegate to India but he relayed and worked under authority of Bishop of Goa. He entrusted, with Jonas De Cruz, the donation of 2000 fannams from the king to erect churches in the Travancore coast. After baptizing a village people, he demolished their hurts of idols and inserted a cross there and later some of them were erected as shrines. The prayer services at places of kurisady were entrusted to main family near it. Xavier gave direction to Mahasillas to appoint teachers in each village.[20] The amount was also used for support of mission in paying to the teacher and catechist.
By the beginning of 1549, Fr. Lancillotto of the Society of Jesus started a school in order to train the catechists of fishery and Travancore coast. Portuguese language was also taught in this shoal for the native students. At a time totally 130 students were accommodated, amongst 80 were day scholars. Later it was equipped with a seminary.[21]
Those who lapsed from Christian faith were punished severely. Idol keepers were banished from village. Culprits were put in prison. When the fault was very serious, the captain of Quilon was asked to give punishment.[22] Adultery was punished with public flogged. For drinking of arrack and ‘kallu’ (wine from palm-tree) by women were confined for three days.[23] If the Mukkuvar were not obeying or falling with fathers’ instruction, their fishing instruments were taken by the Portuguese Captain in Quilon at sea.[24] St. Francis Xavier was depended on force and punishment in preserving the faith in coast. Therefore, he requested to introduce the holy inquisition among the Christians under Portuguese India.[25]
The Ecclesial Authorities:
The coast people were under Jesuit mission and under Padroado diocese. It referred to two sets of authorities one from Society of Jesus and another from Padroado church structure. Whenever both went smoothly, there was a little trouble in the coast also. As their relation became quarrelsome, it created troubles in these coasts also. As the Portuguese yielded to Dutch power from 1650s and 1660s and left the Malabar Coast. The Dutch expelled all Jesuits and Portuguses priests from the Malabar and did not allow the Padroado bishops to function within their territory. The bishop established their abode at Manmpally in Travancore state until the diocese of Cochin was suppressed and annexed to the diocese of Verapoly in 1838 by Pope Gregory XIV. Again, it was revived at the creation of modern Quilon diocese in 1845 under Belgian Discalced Carmelite Missionaries. The costal belt was divided into two ecclesial unities.[26] One part Thenkapatinam to Cape Comorin was integrated into the diocese of Quilon under Carmelite mission and another part (Erameenthura to Perumathura) was held under the diocese of Cochin until 1952 in the Portuguese Travancore mission.[27] On 18 July 1950, the concord between the Holy See and Portugal terminated and so the Padroado ended. The Cochin diocese was placed under the Propaganda Fide.[28]
Relation with Missionaries: Before the Society of Jesus received pontifical recognition, their missionaries reached in India in 1541. St. Francis Xavier was the first Provincial of Eastern Province. Its Head quarter was established at Goa. The affairs of the missionaries in the coast were taken care of the Goan Province until the Malabar province was created in 1601. In the Malabar province, the Quilon division had a Collage with 4 fathers and one brother and 25-league coastal stretch from Quilon to Cap Comorin where 4 fathers were at service of 36 churches in 44 Christian villages at time of its beginning.[29] The church officials like kanakkappillai, vadhiyar and muskues (singer in the church) in the coast were trained in the Quilon Collage.
At beginning of Dutch attack, the fathers were protected by the king of Travancore.[30] The collage at Quilon was sacked by the Dutch in 1664 .the fathers were dispersed. The provincial and fathers remained at service of the coastal people. They took care of the need of missionaries. The report say that the provincial moved to a coastal village called Tope from 1667in south Travancore until it was attacked by the Travancore king at jealousy of wealth and rumor of building fort and collection of arms. The provincial and the rector were shifting then their resident and center to Colacheal and then to Rajakamangalam. They did not remain there for long. For in 1713 the provincial, Rectory and other priests were moved to reside at Puduthurey a coastal village now in the Archdioces of Trivandrum but in Kanyakumari district. From there they served newly found the Nemam Mission for the conversion of high casts and interior people.[31]
The Society of Jesus was banished in 1759 from Portugal and from Portugal territories in possessions.[32] The order of suppression of the society was executed in India meanwhile all Jesuits were transported to Portugal. At time of suppression, there were fathers in Trivandrum coastal parishes from Mampally, Puthenthope, Anjuthngu, Reytora (Valiathra), Bringoa (Vizhinjam), and Puithurai.[33] When the society was reinstalled and revived in India many places expect in the coast of St. Xavier’s vine- garden in the Travancore coast.
“Tharaimel pirakkavaitthaan-enkalai
Thanneeril pizhaikkavaitthaan!” [Kannadasan]
There are over 22,000 species of fish, and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization monitors commercial harvest of slightly over 1,100 species.
Hunting and gathering animals that live in water is an ancient form of food gathering.
Fishing—usually by hand, club, spear, net, and possibly by hook—was known to prehistoric people. It was practiced by the ancient Persians, Egyptians, and Chinese, and it is mentioned in the Odyssey and in the Bible. It is a major means of subsistence and livelihood today in most nations of the world.
The Mukkuvar are the valiant among the marine fishing people presently inhabiting the Arabian sea coast in the districts of Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu and Trivandrum in Kerala. They are the only manual shark hunters, besides daring the sea at all seasons, in all regions and are skilled in all kinds of gears and crafts, traditional as well as modern. Their traditional skill in determining the course of the currents, the winds, the time and directions even in adverse situations is legendary.
Etymology:
The very term Mukkuvar indicative of their subaltern state as the word Mukkuvar receive its meaning from etymological Tamil word ‘Muk’. There are two implications according to Kalpana Ram. The first implication indicates region of this community as the corner (muk) in the Indian Peninsula and the second indicate their occupation as diving for fishing (Mung).[1] But most probably this word might have derived from the Sanskrit/Hindi root for fisherman ‘machhuva.’
P.T. Mathew identifies religious cultural and occupational specialties to the term distinguishing the community from other fishing communities in south India especially in Kerala [and the west coast of Tamil Nadu]. Formerly the term ‘Mukkuvar’ was used to mean all marine fishermen. In course of time, it was employed to refer to only one particular subgroup i.e., the Latin catholic marine fishermen. Now “the term Mukkuvar would mean exclusively the community of marine fisher people professing Catholic religion living in the Kanyakumari district [in Tamil Nadu] and Thiruvananthapuram district [in Kerala].” [2] Through a 1961 government order giving them Other Backward Community (OBC) status because of their social and educational backwardness.
This region happens to be one of the richest in the country in terms of biodiversity, abundance of fish stocks, cultural diversity of fishing communities, and historical traditions. The abundance and diversity of fish resources in the inshore sea, arguably one of the richest in the world, is a result of unique geographical and oceanographic features. These shores lie within 20 degrees north of the equator, with relatively warm and stable climatic conditions round the year. Besides, two of the Arabian Sea estuaries, Neyyar and Thamiraparani rivers at Poovar and Erayumanthurai/Thengapattinam, provide fresh water and the right mix of salt and nutrients for all forms of marine life to flourish. Sandy and muddy sub-strata, large coral reefs, rich benthic vegetation and coastal protective plants like mangroves are other important factors that aid biodiversity. The two monsoon cycles, occurring every year, enrich the sea with oxygen and fresh water. Ideal conditions like these that foster marine diversity and high primary productivity have enabled fishing communities to enjoy a stable and prosperous life over generations.
Traditional skills were the mainstay of fishing operations till the late-1960s. These artisans had developed their own skills based on rural technology. They developed various types of craft and gear adapted for various types of fishing operations. For example,’ kattamarams’ -- known as the only unsinkable craft in the world -- were designed as the craft most appropriate for launching and landing on surf beaches. They can be propelled manually or by wind power. The ‘mesh size’ of nets was the main principle behind traditional gear technology. For each species, particular gear with a specific mesh size is designed so that it catches that species alone, and among them only the adult fish, thereby causing minimum damage to the environment and preserving future fish stocks.
The accumulated knowledge system of traditional fishing is substantial and has stood the test of time for thousands of years. Traditional fisher folk refer to the famed ‘shore-seine’ operation as the best example of the superior and sophisticated scientific and technical skills of artisan fisher folk. From the beach, expert fishermen could examine a shoal of fish migrating at a distance of 2-3 km away from the shore. They could judge the type of fish in the shoal, the depth at which the fish were travelling, and their speed. Scholars in the fisheries sector say that traditional fishermen were extremely careful in their operations and did nothing to damage the marine ecosystem.
Fishing gears are largely unchanged from ancient times. Nets of various types are the most commonly used commercial fishing gear. The basic concept of a net, regardless of the configuration, is the same today as it was when ancient man first wove fibers together to make nets. Fishing gears have become more efficient, but in subtle ways. Prior to about 1980, trawls (nets pulled behind a boat) could attain only a limited depth and were nonspecific in their catch. Significant research efforts resulted in trawls that could be fished deeper (up to 8,200 feet, or 2,500 meters) and had devices that would tend to exclude mammals or turtles. The major change that occurred is not in gears, but in the boats/ crafts.
Commercial fishing boats/ crafts are capable of staying at sea for months at a time, giving fishermen the ability to fish anywhere in the sea. Technological advances in engines, fuels, and boat designs, coupled with international treaties that allow foreign fishing fleets safe harbor, increased the efficiency of commercial operations. Harvested animals can be cleaned on board and frozen at –76°F (–60°C) for extended storage. Large companies evolved to more efficiently harvest fish, and those companies developed the concept of multiple fishing boats and a mother ship for processing and storing fish. Fishermen also take advantage of the other forms of commercial transport, taking some of their harvest to nearby ports and consigning them to air freight companies for transport back to home bases.
Restrictions on commercial harvest have been common since the early 1980s. As populations declined, state or federal regulatory agencies restricted harvest by establishing quotas (limited number of fishing licenses), restricting harvest volume (limitation on volume, which can be expressed per day, week, or season), or restricting gears (numbers of traps, length of nets, number of nets).International agreements are in place that define who can fish where, seasons for fishing, and gear acceptance. Most countries claim some distance from their shores as available only to local fishermen.Whole communities are in significant economic crisis. New industries are not readily apparent for a labor force trained in commercial fishing, processing, and distribution of fish and shellfish. Since the 1980s the fisheries have been in sharp decline, and with it a way of life. Some fishermen, with modified gears, are able to switch species. Creative marketing techniques also opened opportunities for commercial fishermen.
The habitation:
The habitat of Mukkuvars is mostly spread of on the western coast and in a few villages on the eastern coast of the Indian peninsula. They lived on beach stretching within one km wide from high- tide level densely from Vizhinjam to south ward to Muttam in former days[3]. They have the habit of migration from November to February each year. In their migration they made suitable settlements in Ponthura, Valiathura, Veli, Anchuthengu, and Mampally in 19th century and in Marianadu in 1960s onwards. A section of Mukkuvar, found settlements aside the known markets all over the original Travancore state.[4] Some settled along with plantation labours at bottom of western ghates places like Puthapandi, Arelvaimozhi, Thittuvilai, Panachamoodu, Kattakada, Vithura, Peringamalai, Palode etc. Their villages can be found along the trade highway in the plains like Palayam, Balaramapuram, Neyyattinkara, Parasala, Kaliakkavilai, Padanthalumoodu, Kuzhithurai, Marthandam,Thiruvithamcode, Karungal, Thingalchanthai, Vadassery,Kottar etc.[5] Though their political unity was divided with the formation of the linguistic states, their religious, cultural, occupational and dialectal affiliation and unit is kept alive as in one community in a political unity [6]
Population:
The number of Mukkuvar was calculated about 10000 in the 16th century by St. Francis Xavier. They lived in 12 villages in the Travancore coast and interior market places. Thereafter any specific reference to the whole community is not available since the community was considered to be some numbers among other converts for Portuguese and among Christians for Church documents. The number of Christian fishermen villages increased from 17 in 1568 to 23 in 1626. Meanwhile mission stations and seven churches were established to serve the religious need of the trade fishers in Kottar, Kalkulam, Parasala,and Neyyattinkara, etc. according to the reports of 1667-1708. The Christian population in this region increased considerably due to natural growth rather than conversions.[7] The state began to take census from 1881 onwards only, the Mukkuvar members were counted among Roman Christians (Latin Catholic). A combination of Roman Catholics and fishermen help to calculate the strength of Mukkuvar from districts belong to the Trivandrum and Padmanabhapuram divisions in the Travancore State. According to the 2005 marine census the Mukkuvar population in both districts counts as 74892 household in population ………..
According to the MCFCI census in 2005, the Mukkuvars predominantly live in the coast of Kannyakumari (members in 37,211 families out of 37,405 households counting 148539 in 44 villages), Tamilnadu and Thiruvananthapuram ,(27681 families out of 34128 counting 143436 in 42 villages ) Kerala. This comes 99 % of fishing communities in KK dist., and 83 % in TVMP dist., are belong to Mukkuvar. The Mukkuvars are densely habituated along the coast from Azhical to Adimalaithura (53 villages) continually in the narrow sand strips, then densely in Vizhinjam and then densely populated stream continues from Poonthura to Valiaveli (9), Santhipuram to Puthukurichi (3) and Puthurai to Mampally(3)[8]. There are more than 100000 mukkuvars live in 175 interior villages in both districts.
In the Latin Archdiocese of Trivandrum:
The Trivandrum Archdiocese is one of the two ecclesiastical provinces in the Latin Rite in Kerala. It was created in June 3, 2004 through the Bull –‘Sacratissimi Cordis Jesu’ – dividing the Ecclesiastical province of Verapoly. The Diocese of Trivandrum was made on July 1, 1937, by Pope Pius XI through the Bull “In Ora Malabarica” from the diocese of Quilon. The care of Diocese of Trivandrum was entrusted to the Carmelites of the Flanders Province (Belgium) then. In the beginning of the diocese the coastal strip from Erayumanthurai to Perumathura was part of the Cochin Padrovada diocese. These coastal villages were known as the Trivandrum Portuguese Mission. This part was annexed to the Diocese of Trivandrum in 1952 temporarily and in 1955 permanently, with an auxiliary native bishop: Bp Peter Bernard Pereira before formation of Kerala State.
“The Latin Archdiocese of Trivandrum has the territory consisting of Trivandrum and Chirayankil of Thiruvananthapuram district with a small strip of coastal belt from Kovalam to Pozhiyoor in Neyyattinkara Taluk and Neerody to Erayumanthurai of Kanyakumari District in Tamil Nadu.”[9] The small strip of coastal belt as the Trivandrum Portuguese Mission had become, ever just after 12 years of their embrace of Christianity under jurisdiction of the Cochin Diocese 1557-1952. Since then the Mukkuvar community annexed in the Trivandrum diocese, the Mukkuvar community was predominant in the diocese counting about 65% and 88% after the bifurcation of Neyyattinkara diocese in the faithful population. “The total number of Catholics in Trivandrum Archdiocese is 2, 31,244, out of which 1, 18,309 are male members and 112,935 are female members.”[10] According to the present (2005) survey there are 45,777 families. The dominating caste in Trivandrum Archdiocese is Mukkuvar. That is about 39,125 families (86% of the total families).[11] They live mainly in well established 43 coastal parishes and interior Mukkuvar settlements.
The community has kept its identity in a hidden way since they are incorporated into the fisher people in the civil consideration and in the Latin Catholic community in the religious. They live in two states, in the Kanyakumary district in Tamil Nadu and Thiruvananthapuram district in Kerala and in two dioceses, in Kottar in Tamil Nadu and Trivandrum in Kerala. The community is not yet well aware of the impact of this division. It has very badly affected its reorganization and appreciation of their contribution in the marine fishing achievements. Most of their catch is brought ashore in Kerala and is counted as the achievement of the Kerala fishermen. Thus the community is denied packing and support from governments of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Mukkuvar in the interior:
Those who involved in fish selling were to run between shores and market places in old days. They found that it was convenient to settle down near the market places to ensure ‘anthicantha’ evening market for fishes. Most of agrarian people prefer to bring their products in the evening market after daily work in the field. Around fish-selling, other merchants also gathered for trade, thus the fish-trade initiated the formation of market places in the Travancore State. While the fish-traders made their settlements near these markets. There are wide spread of such settlements found in old Travancore state but presently in Kanyakumary dist., Tamil Nadu and Thiruvananthapuram dist., in Kerala. They are called as ‘ karamukkuvar or Kuttakar’. Some of dominant places to point are Balaramapuram, Neyyattinkara, Parasala, Kunnukuzhi at Palayam,TVM, Kuzhithura, Puthukadai, Kottar, etc. They are Latin Catholics and built their churches to pioneer the mission work in the interior region of the state. They have marriage relation with mukkuvar shore villages and all cultural factors are the same as of the mukkuvar community. At present they count about 65000. They come under Kottar, Neyyattinkara, and Trivandrum dioceses.
Language: They speak a kind of old Tamil. It seems to be original source of the modern Tamil and Malayalam. It is very rich with similes, stories, poems, metaphoric contents with flavours of all expression of feelings. It has many seemingly Malayalam words with Tamil grammatical structures. It is another dialect with Malayalam overtones. Inhabiting the border districts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, they can easily handle both the languages of Tamil and Malayalam. The medium of language in especially in Vilavancode Taluk was Malayalam till the state reorganization in the early sixties. Also Church services by the priests were conducted in Malayalam in the eight villages in Tamil Nadu of Trivandrum diocese. Moreover, they migrate mostly to Kerala and further west for fishing and hence compelled to master the use of the languages of those regions. Old Tamil and ancient Malayalam literatures were composed of these words mainly used by Mukkuvar. Some of poets of the ‘Sangam’ era and later ages were claimed to be from this community. This can be proved only by further studies. There were poets from this community. Since writing and reading are not considered as needful in life of agrarian in the past, Mukkuvar also did not seriously think of community’s education in the past but they have improved a lot now in education compared to other fishing communities in India.
Religion and Belief systems:
At present Mukkuvars are Christians of the Latin Catholic rite. They were converted to Christianity by Jesuit missionaries especially by St. Francis Xavier, the Second Apostle of India. Before that they were practicing all known religious traditions from their origin. Their religious practices and belief-systems exhibit traces from those of ‘neithel tinai’, ’Tantric’ and ‘Sakteyam’ religions, ‘Saivism’, ‘Buddhism’, and ‘Jainism’ .They did not give up their basic rituals and practices but made adaptations according to the need of the religion of the time. Their practices and beliefs have endured renewal process of the new religion. P. T. Mathew prefers to call it Mukkuvar Catholicism which has its own features due to its adaptation in practice and belief to the Catholic Christian Faith presented to them.
Historical Context:
The Mukkuvars settlement had been remained within the boundaries of the Travancore state[12] from its origin, growth, fall and triumph in its political history. The Mukkuvar community was undergone changes together with up and downs of the state. The region had been under various dynasties like Ay kings, ‘Venad’ kings and Travancore kings. These dynasties held supremacy over this region due to its importance in the foreign trade and commerce. The ports in the region attracted many foreign trades especially for spices, marine products, and forest products. They functioned as bridge in trade to the east and the west: China, Japan, and Malaysia etc., with Arabia, Africa and Europe. Thus the prominent rulers in the peninsula wished to possess the region. This attraction caused many battles. The Mukkuvar settlements were transferred from defeated ruler to the victor. The frequent warfare robed away wealth, damaged institutions of learning and crippled its development again and again. In this political context, the Mukkuvars had embraced the Christian faith.
In the beginning of 15th-16th centuries the period, the Travancore state was constrained within the present Kanyakumary District.[13] The state established its supremacy in the18th century covering half of present Kerala territory under its sovereignty and maintained as such until the independence of India. The Mukkuvar territory, which is identified as the coastal stretch of Kannyakumary and Trivandrum districts, had always remained within the Travancore state down the centuries.
Faith Formation and Challenges:
The Mukkuvar became Christians in 1544. They were not given proper training in the faith formation they received a little pastoral care due to scarcity of missionaries. They were not promoted to the priesthood by the ecclesial authorities because they considered the Mukkuvar as lower in caste and more emotionally charged. The missionaries of the Jesuits and their diocesan authority in Cochin did not considered them worth of serious consideration. The political situation in the Travancore and Brahmin’s hostility added further turmoil in their religious life. In spite of this entire hostile situation, they kept their faith for last 550 years. It is all because their love to Francis Xavier and his arrangements to impart the faith to them.
The Parish Institution: The Mukkuvars lived in a village with well territorial boundaries. We have no knowledge whether the saint erected any churches or parishes in these coastal villages but there 14 Mukkuvar villages in the coast. It seems the majority of Mukkuvar received baptism from the saint in each village. He created some shrines and appointed catechists, teachers, and ‘melinchy’ in each village. The officials were helped and assisted by ‘Arayans’. This group had to deliberate for the people, legislate and judge and ensure the maintenance of the community code.[14] This group has to gather to settle quarrels and disputes among people make peace between enemies in the villages after the mass on every Sunday. They had right of punishing minor offences; higher offences and punishment were to be referred to, if it were ecclesial to the superior in the coast and if it was civil matter, to Captain(no. 14).
Those who make a pagoda were banished from native villages with approval of the superior. They arrested the culprits and kept in prison until the priest arrives to give punishments. The Saint asked the priests and missionaries to reconcile the quarrelling men in Sundays and women in Saturdays as they gather for catechism. (No. 5)
The Source of Finance:
The revenue came to the parish from collection (fifth to one-half) of the catch, from the sale of shark fins, “the right to which was in ancient times ceded to the church by the Maharaja of Travancore”[15], and sales tax from merchants called ‘mahima’. By this income, the parishes could meet the expense of salary and allowance to the priest and other officials. Left amounts were utilized to undertake construction of church, schools, and other community structures. Those who made arrears were punished with denial of sacraments. The Mukkuvar parishes were self sufficient in financial matters. They never depended on the missionary grants from Portuguese kings. The Saint advised the missionaries not to take any money from these people. [16] Later those priests from Goa and Cochin who served the coastal villages were accused of grabbing lot of money in name of religious tax and services.[17]
The saint advised to keep a part of this amount to distribute among the poor along with alms collected from Sundays, from sick peoples (no. 6) the requests of the poor for help were taken by the same group in Sundays and allot according to the need and capacities.
The Initiation into the Catholic Faith:
There was only Fr Francis Henriques to take care of Christians with help of a lay brother from 1545- 1575. Fr. Valignano had arranged two priests who knew Tamil in the coastal villagers as he felt pity over their desolated condition. They resided at Colecheal, one was assigned to take care of coast people from Colechal to Cape Comorin and other to west to Chowara. There were 17 churches in 1575.[18] There were 26 churches in 1601. In 1626, there were two Jesuit priests to serve ten thousand souls in 23 churches in the coat. [19] In 1644, the priest number increased into five residing in Puiturai, Kolechal, Kadiapattinam, Rajakamangalam and Kottar. There were no sufficient priests to serve all villages under Jesuits mission from 1544- 1644 or under native dioceses for another three century until Kottar diocese was created in 1930 and the Travancore Portuguese Mission was suppressed in 1952 and annexed to the Diocese of Trivandrum.
The Mukkuvar were under Jesuit mission works and under jurisdiction of the Goa diocese until the territory passed to the diocese of Cochin erected in 1557. For few y Francis Xavier was Popes delegate to India but he relayed and worked under authority of Bishop of Goa. He entrusted, with Jonas De Cruz, the donation of 2000 fannams from the king to erect churches in the Travancore coast. After baptizing a village people, he demolished their hurts of idols and inserted a cross there and later some of them were erected as shrines. The prayer services at places of kurisady were entrusted to main family near it. Xavier gave direction to Mahasillas to appoint teachers in each village.[20] The amount was also used for support of mission in paying to the teacher and catechist.
By the beginning of 1549, Fr. Lancillotto of the Society of Jesus started a school in order to train the catechists of fishery and Travancore coast. Portuguese language was also taught in this shoal for the native students. At a time totally 130 students were accommodated, amongst 80 were day scholars. Later it was equipped with a seminary.[21]
Those who lapsed from Christian faith were punished severely. Idol keepers were banished from village. Culprits were put in prison. When the fault was very serious, the captain of Quilon was asked to give punishment.[22] Adultery was punished with public flogged. For drinking of arrack and ‘kallu’ (wine from palm-tree) by women were confined for three days.[23] If the Mukkuvar were not obeying or falling with fathers’ instruction, their fishing instruments were taken by the Portuguese Captain in Quilon at sea.[24] St. Francis Xavier was depended on force and punishment in preserving the faith in coast. Therefore, he requested to introduce the holy inquisition among the Christians under Portuguese India.[25]
The Ecclesial Authorities:
The coast people were under Jesuit mission and under Padroado diocese. It referred to two sets of authorities one from Society of Jesus and another from Padroado church structure. Whenever both went smoothly, there was a little trouble in the coast also. As their relation became quarrelsome, it created troubles in these coasts also. As the Portuguese yielded to Dutch power from 1650s and 1660s and left the Malabar Coast. The Dutch expelled all Jesuits and Portuguses priests from the Malabar and did not allow the Padroado bishops to function within their territory. The bishop established their abode at Manmpally in Travancore state until the diocese of Cochin was suppressed and annexed to the diocese of Verapoly in 1838 by Pope Gregory XIV. Again, it was revived at the creation of modern Quilon diocese in 1845 under Belgian Discalced Carmelite Missionaries. The costal belt was divided into two ecclesial unities.[26] One part Thenkapatinam to Cape Comorin was integrated into the diocese of Quilon under Carmelite mission and another part (Erameenthura to Perumathura) was held under the diocese of Cochin until 1952 in the Portuguese Travancore mission.[27] On 18 July 1950, the concord between the Holy See and Portugal terminated and so the Padroado ended. The Cochin diocese was placed under the Propaganda Fide.[28]
Relation with Missionaries: Before the Society of Jesus received pontifical recognition, their missionaries reached in India in 1541. St. Francis Xavier was the first Provincial of Eastern Province. Its Head quarter was established at Goa. The affairs of the missionaries in the coast were taken care of the Goan Province until the Malabar province was created in 1601. In the Malabar province, the Quilon division had a Collage with 4 fathers and one brother and 25-league coastal stretch from Quilon to Cap Comorin where 4 fathers were at service of 36 churches in 44 Christian villages at time of its beginning.[29] The church officials like kanakkappillai, vadhiyar and muskues (singer in the church) in the coast were trained in the Quilon Collage.
At beginning of Dutch attack, the fathers were protected by the king of Travancore.[30] The collage at Quilon was sacked by the Dutch in 1664 .the fathers were dispersed. The provincial and fathers remained at service of the coastal people. They took care of the need of missionaries. The report say that the provincial moved to a coastal village called Tope from 1667in south Travancore until it was attacked by the Travancore king at jealousy of wealth and rumor of building fort and collection of arms. The provincial and the rector were shifting then their resident and center to Colacheal and then to Rajakamangalam. They did not remain there for long. For in 1713 the provincial, Rectory and other priests were moved to reside at Puduthurey a coastal village now in the Archdioces of Trivandrum but in Kanyakumari district. From there they served newly found the Nemam Mission for the conversion of high casts and interior people.[31]
The Society of Jesus was banished in 1759 from Portugal and from Portugal territories in possessions.[32] The order of suppression of the society was executed in India meanwhile all Jesuits were transported to Portugal. At time of suppression, there were fathers in Trivandrum coastal parishes from Mampally, Puthenthope, Anjuthngu, Reytora (Valiathra), Bringoa (Vizhinjam), and Puithurai.[33] When the society was reinstalled and revived in India many places expect in the coast of St. Xavier’s vine- garden in the Travancore coast.
[Obligations to Fr. Stanilaus Theesmas, Paul B. Brown and N. P. Chekkutty]
[1] Kalpana Ram, Mukkuvar Women - Gender, Hegemony and Capitalist Transformation in a South Indian Fishing Community, (New Delhi: Kali for women, 1992), 1-5.
[2] P.T.Mathew, We dare the waters – the world and the world view of Mukkuvar, (Chennai: University of Madras, 2001), 36.
[3] In the 16th century there were only 14 Mukkuvar villages in the western coast. They are Poovar, Kollancod, Vallavilai, Thuthur, Puithurai, Thangapatinam, Enayam, Midalam, Vaniakudi, Kolacheal, Kadiapatinam, Muttam, Palam and Manakudi. Joseph Thekkedath, Histroy of Cristianity in India, Vol.-II, 184.Cf Geroge Schurhammer, Francis Xavier, His Life, His Times, II,.468-9.
[4] The Origin Travancore State consisted mainly in the Present Kannyakumary District with Neyyatinkara Taluk in present Thrivandrum District cf. map No. I from Geroge Schurhammer,.468-9.
[5] Dr. Vareethaya .C,.Neithal Suvadukal, 99-115
[6] John Samuel, ‘The Mukkuvar: A Fishing Community’, 5. Cf to K.Ram. 2-3.
[7] Joseph Thekkededath, History of Christianity in India Vol. II, Banbalore Theological Publications in India 1982. pp. 190-94.
[8] In bracket the number of villages in each section is given.
[9] Joseph. C. Ed. Directory 2005 Latin Archdiocese of Trivandrum, (Trivandrum: 2005),25.
[10] The Catholic Directory 2000, Latin Archdiocese of Trivandrum, the information given here is taken from the CBCI website.
[11] Statistical data of TSSS: Trivandrum Social Service Society a power point presentation , (Trivandrum :TSSS 2007). The survey was taken in the year of 2005.
[12] George schurhammer,II, 468-9.
[13]The map of then Travancore in 1544 George Schurhammer, II, 464.- Appendix 1.
[14] Felix Wilfred In Service and Fellowship, the diocese of Kottar in contemporary Times1962-1980, Called to serv, a Profile of Kottar , Narchison, and al.( Nagercoil: Assissi Press 1983), 137.
[15] J.M. Villavarayan, The dioces of Kottat a review of its growth (Nagercoil:,1956), 52.
[16] Costelloe 196.
[17] L.A. Netto, The South Travancore Portuguese Missions and Compulsory Primary Education, (Reprinted from Malayala Rajyam news paper, dated 14th November, 1945,Trivandrum:), 2.
[18] Joseph Thekkedath, 186-8
[19] Joseph Thekkedath., 193
[20] Costelleo , 125.
[21] Joseph Thekkedath, 121.
[22] Joseph Thekkedath, 126-27.
[23] Luis M. Bermejo Unto the Indies life of St Francis Xavier, (Anand: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash 200), 82-83.
[24] Schurhammer 465.
[25] Costelleo 62, 76 and 149.
[26] E. P Antony, 163.
[27] Mark Netto. The Doicese of Trivandrum, in Christian Heritage of Kerala K.J. John ed., (Calicut, Xavier Press,1981), 374.
[28] E. P Antony, 158
[29] Ferroli. I, 290.
[30] Ferroli. Ii, 258.
[31]. Ferroli, II, 256-261.
[32] Ferroli, II, 490.
[33] Ferroli, II, 548.
[1] Kalpana Ram, Mukkuvar Women - Gender, Hegemony and Capitalist Transformation in a South Indian Fishing Community, (New Delhi: Kali for women, 1992), 1-5.
[2] P.T.Mathew, We dare the waters – the world and the world view of Mukkuvar, (Chennai: University of Madras, 2001), 36.
[3] In the 16th century there were only 14 Mukkuvar villages in the western coast. They are Poovar, Kollancod, Vallavilai, Thuthur, Puithurai, Thangapatinam, Enayam, Midalam, Vaniakudi, Kolacheal, Kadiapatinam, Muttam, Palam and Manakudi. Joseph Thekkedath, Histroy of Cristianity in India, Vol.-II, 184.Cf Geroge Schurhammer, Francis Xavier, His Life, His Times, II,.468-9.
[4] The Origin Travancore State consisted mainly in the Present Kannyakumary District with Neyyatinkara Taluk in present Thrivandrum District cf. map No. I from Geroge Schurhammer,.468-9.
[5] Dr. Vareethaya .C,.Neithal Suvadukal, 99-115
[6] John Samuel, ‘The Mukkuvar: A Fishing Community’, 5. Cf to K.Ram. 2-3.
[7] Joseph Thekkededath, History of Christianity in India Vol. II, Banbalore Theological Publications in India 1982. pp. 190-94.
[8] In bracket the number of villages in each section is given.
[9] Joseph. C. Ed. Directory 2005 Latin Archdiocese of Trivandrum, (Trivandrum: 2005),25.
[10] The Catholic Directory 2000, Latin Archdiocese of Trivandrum, the information given here is taken from the CBCI website.
[11] Statistical data of TSSS: Trivandrum Social Service Society a power point presentation , (Trivandrum :TSSS 2007). The survey was taken in the year of 2005.
[12] George schurhammer,II, 468-9.
[13]The map of then Travancore in 1544 George Schurhammer, II, 464.- Appendix 1.
[14] Felix Wilfred In Service and Fellowship, the diocese of Kottar in contemporary Times1962-1980, Called to serv, a Profile of Kottar , Narchison, and al.( Nagercoil: Assissi Press 1983), 137.
[15] J.M. Villavarayan, The dioces of Kottat a review of its growth (Nagercoil:,1956), 52.
[16] Costelloe 196.
[17] L.A. Netto, The South Travancore Portuguese Missions and Compulsory Primary Education, (Reprinted from Malayala Rajyam news paper, dated 14th November, 1945,Trivandrum:), 2.
[18] Joseph Thekkedath, 186-8
[19] Joseph Thekkedath., 193
[20] Costelleo , 125.
[21] Joseph Thekkedath, 121.
[22] Joseph Thekkedath, 126-27.
[23] Luis M. Bermejo Unto the Indies life of St Francis Xavier, (Anand: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash 200), 82-83.
[24] Schurhammer 465.
[25] Costelleo 62, 76 and 149.
[26] E. P Antony, 163.
[27] Mark Netto. The Doicese of Trivandrum, in Christian Heritage of Kerala K.J. John ed., (Calicut, Xavier Press,1981), 374.
[28] E. P Antony, 158
[29] Ferroli. I, 290.
[30] Ferroli. Ii, 258.
[31]. Ferroli, II, 256-261.
[32] Ferroli, II, 490.
[33] Ferroli, II, 548.
Monday 15 September, 2008
ജീവനും വെളിച്ചവും പത്രാതിപര്ക്ക്...
'ജീവനും വെളിച്ചവും' മാസികയുടെ ഒരു വായനക്കാരനും, അത് നമ്മുടെ രൂപതയുടെ ചരിത്ര, സാഹിത്യ, സാംസ്കാരിക, സാമൂഹിക, ആത്യാത്മിക ജിഹ്വയായി മാറണം എന്നും ആഗ്രഹിക്കുന്ന ഒരുവനുമാണ്. ഇതു നമുക്കല്ലാതെ മറ്റാറ്കെങ്കിലും നിര്വഹിക്കാനാവുമോ? എന്നാല് മാസികയിലെ ലേഖനങ്ങളോ പംക്തികാളോ എഴുതുന്നത് മറ്റാരോക്കൊയാണ്! എന്താ നമുക്കു പൃഗല്പ്പന്മാരും പണ്ഡിതന്മാരും ഇല്ലാഞ്ഞിട്ടാണോ? ദൈവ ശാസ്ത്രത്തിലും, കാനോന് നിയമത്തിലുമൊക്കെ ഡോക്ടറേറ്റ് വരെ നേടിയവര് ഇല്ലേ? വൈതീകരും അല്മായരുമൊക്കെ? ഇവര്ക്ക് എഴുതാന് കഴിവില്ലെന്നോ, സമയമില്ലെന്നോ? നമ്മുടെതന്നെ സര്ഗശേസികളെ എന്നാണാവോ നമുക്കായി നാം ഉപയോഗപ്പെടുത്താന് പോകുന്നത്?
ഒരു പ്രോഫെഷണല് പത്രാതിഭ സമിതി എന്നാണാവോ ഉണ്ടാവുക? രൂപതയുടെ മുഖച്ഛായ ആകേണ്ട ഒരു മാസിക ഇങ്ങനെ പോയാല് മതിയോ?
രൂപതയുടെ ജീവല്ത്തുടിപ്പുകള് ഏറ്റുവാങ്ങുന്ന ഒരു മാസിഗയെ രൂപതാമാക്കളും ഏറ്റുവാങ്ങും, തീര്ച്ച. ഈ മാസിക നമ്മുടെ ഒരു അഭിമാനമാകട്ടെ. അതിന് ചേര്ന്ന ലേഖനങ്ങളും, റിപോര്ടുകളും, കഥ, കവിത മറ്റു രചനകളും ചേരുവകകളും ഒക്കെയായി നമ്മുടെ മുഖപത്രമാവട്ടെ.
പങ്കി.
Wednesday 3 September, 2008
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